“Multiliteracies for Inclusive Technologies: A Case Study on Location-Based Services and Domestic Violence Survivors”

by Jennifer Roth Miller | Xchanges 12.1

Location-Based Services & Privacy

As a starting point, Agre (1994) evaluates varying models of privacy in his essay “Surveillance and Capture: Two Models of Privacy.” His essay begins by discussing Michael Foucault’s theory of panopticism — a form of surveillance where people and their actions are knowingly watched by a central “big brother,” leading to a system of power where people act as required because they know they are being monitored. Agre (1994) considers a different model: capture. In this model, computers capture information for a variety of purposes; corporations correlate information from multiple actions into patterns to create profiles that become a commodity. People are aware that their actions can be seen so they act consciously, yet they don’t consciously feel the pressure or threat of constant monitoring because data is aggregated. Smartphone-enabled location-based services are a present form of capture surveillance and tracking.

Location-based services are applications that aggregate a person’s location from geolocation information supplied from a device in that person’s possession with contextual data to provide a real-time information solution from the online network relevant to a person’s need (Abbas, Michael, & Michael, 2014). The modern evolution is an enhanced push-pull tracking method where information is supplied intuitively based on location and tracking — essentially search engine results without users performing an actual search (Barreneche, 2012). These capabilities make everyday life easier and advertisements more relevant. It’s a situation that seems ideal on the surface, yet as it is more fully understood it presents some serious concerns.

Smartphones seamlessly combine many digital technologies, such as phone, Internet, social media, geolocation services, and various interfaces, and allow a real-time back and forth rhythm for information, identities, and data to traverse human and non-human, as well as online and offline spaces (Weltevrede et al., 2014). Because the smartphone is in constant possession and coupled with geolocation technology, it is considered the most important mobile device in this discussion.

According to Pew Internet Research Project (2014):

• 90% of American adults have a cell phone.
• 58% have a smartphone.
• 74% of adult smartphone owners say they use their phone to get directions or other information based on their current location.
• 30% of adult social media users say at least one of their accounts is currently set up to include their location in their posts.
• 12% of adult smartphone owners say they use a geosocial service to “check in” to certain locations or share their location with friends.

These statistics demonstrate the widespread use of location-informed mobile technology in America. The number of smartphone apps available is growing exponentially and people are downloading them blindly (Greenberg, 2013). Many of these apps integrate geolocation services, collect personal information, and communicate with the public via social media sites and advertisers. These apps are created by companies that may intentionally collect data from users’ phones, but others are created by small businesses or individual novice developers who haven’t put much thought into how the apps integrate data. Both approaches jeopardize users’ privacy.

Because identity construction and perception is important in fulfilling social needs, people willingly post profiles with detailed personal information. Additionally, regularly posted photos, check-ins, and general posts contain metadata embedded by smartphones revealing more information that is aggregated to create profiles of activity patterns and real-time location information. Implicit motivations such as building positive identity online through affiliation and by showcasing technology skills, creativity, and communication skills fuel social media engagement (Greenhow & Robelia, 2009). Social media companies exist to fulfill these needs in exchange for personal data that provides the commodity sold to fund the entire operation.